This chapter explores how India developed its foreign policy after gaining independence, focusing on how it balanced relations with world powers and managed its ties with neighbouring countries like Pakistan and China.
The chapter explains:
- How India dealt with neighbours like Pakistan and China.
- How India managed ties with both US and USSR without losing independence.
- How wars (1962, 1965, 1971) tested India’s foreign policy.
- How India developed its nuclear programme and stood firm against unfair global treaties.
- How foreign policy changed after the Cold War, when the USSR collapsed and India started building new ties, especially with the US and neighbours.
In short, India’s foreign policy shows a balance between national interest, peace, and independence. It also reflects India’s dream of building a just and equal world, free from domination of big powers.
The key themes – Non-Alignment, relations with neighbours, nuclear policy, and shifts after Cold War.
The Chapter Notes provided here follow the textbook text content and structure, organized with headings and subheadings.
Contents
1. International Context
India’s Birth in a Challenging World
- India became independent in a very complex and difficult international environment.
- The world had just witnessed World War II and was struggling with reconstruction.
- A new international organisation, the United Nations (UN), was being established to maintain peace and security.
- The collapse of colonialism gave rise to many new independent countries.
- Twin Challenges: These new nations faced twin challenges:
- Welfare (economic growth, removal of poverty)
- Democracy (political stability, people’s participation)
India’s Own Problems at Independence
- Legacy of international disputes left by British rule.
- Partition of India created new political and security pressures.
- Poverty alleviation and development became urgent domestic tasks.
Basic Principles of India’s Foreign Policy
- As a nation born after a world war, India decided to:
- Respect the sovereignty of all nations.
- Achieve security through peace, not aggression.
- These principles are also reflected in the Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSPs) of the Indian Constitution.
Factors Influencing Foreign Policy
Foreign policy of any nation is shaped by both domestic and international factors (like individuals or families are influenced by internal and external conditions).
Developing countries (like India in 1947)
- Lack resources to strongly push their interests at the global level.
- Usually set modest goals, unlike powerful advanced countries.
- Focus more on peace and development in their neighbourhood.
- Their economic and security dependence on stronger powers often affects their foreign policy choices.
Global Situation after World War II
- The world got divided into two power blocs during the Cold War:
- United States & Western Allies
- Soviet Union & its Allies
- Many developing countries aligned themselves with either of the two blocs in exchange for aid, credits, and protection.
Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
- An alternative experiment where newly independent nations chose not to formally align with either power bloc.
- India played a key role in shaping and promoting NAM.
Later Developments
- The end of the Cold War (early 1990s) changed the entire context of international relations.
- But at the time of India’s independence (late 1940s and 1950s), the Cold War was just beginning and the world was sharply divided into two camps.
Also Know
- Cold War: A state of political, military, and economic rivalry between the USA and USSR (1947–1991), without direct large-scale fighting.
- Sovereignty: The right of a country to govern itself without external interference.
- Directive Principles & Foreign Policy: Article 51 of the Indian Constitution directs the state to promote international peace, respect international law, and settle disputes peacefully.
2. The Policy of Non-Allignment
Background
- India’s national movement was part of the global struggle against colonialism and imperialism.
- Indian leaders had already established links with Asian and African nationalist leaders before independence.
- Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose’s Indian National Army (INA) during World War II highlighted India’s overseas connections in the anti-colonial struggle.
- India’s foreign policy after independence was influenced by:
- Freedom movement ideals (anti-colonialism, anti-imperialism, peace, sovereignty).
- The Cold War context (global rivalry between US and USSR).
- Events like the formation of the UN, nuclear weapons, Communist China’s rise, and decolonisation.
Nehru’s Role
Jawaharlal Nehru, India’s first Prime Minister, also served as Foreign Minister (1946–1964). He had the strongest influence on shaping India’s foreign policy.
Main Objectives of Nehru’s Foreign Policy
- Preserve India’s sovereignty (freedom to make independent decisions).
- Protect territorial integrity (defend India’s borders).
- Promote rapid economic development.
- Chose the path of non-alignment to achieve these goals.
Opposition Within India:
- Some leaders and parties wanted India to tilt towards the US bloc because it claimed to be pro-democracy.
- Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Bharatiya Jana Sangh, and later the Swatantra Party favoured a pro-US stance.
- But Nehru had enough freedom and influence to pursue his independent vision.
Distance from Two Camps
Policy of Non-Alignment
- India aimed for a peaceful world order, avoided joining US-led NATO or USSR-led Warsaw Pact.
- Supported UN peacekeeping efforts and worked to reduce Cold War tensions.
Independent Stand of India
- 1956, Suez Crisis: India strongly opposed Britain’s attack on Egypt (anti-colonial stand).
- 1956, Hungary Crisis: India avoided condemning the USSR’s invasion, showing the difficulty of balance.
- Despite such dilemmas, India mostly took an independent position and managed to get aid from both US and USSR.
Impact on Relations
- Pakistan joined US-led military alliances (like SEATO, CENTO).
- The US grew uneasy with India’s non-alignment and its growing closeness with the Soviet Union.
- India’s economic development strategy (planned economy, import-substitution, focus on self-reliance) also limited its global economic engagement.
Afro-Asian Unity
India’s Role in Asia and Africa
- Nehru saw India as a leading power in Asia due to its size, location, and potential.
- Advocated Asian unity in the 1940s–50s.
Major Initiatives
- 1947: Convened the Asian Relations Conference in Delhi (before independence).
- 1949: Hosted a conference supporting Indonesia’s independence from Dutch rule.
- Opposed colonialism, racism, and apartheid (esp. in South Africa).
Bandung Conference, 1955
- Held in Indonesia; brought together Asian and African newly independent nations.
- India played a leading role; it was the high point of Afro-Asian solidarity.
- This laid the foundation for the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).
Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
- First NAM Summit: Belgrade, September 1961.
- Founders: Nehru (India), Nasser (Egypt), Tito (Yugoslavia), Sukarno (Indonesia), Nkrumah (Ghana).
- NAM became the collective voice of newly independent nations outside US and USSR camps.
Also Know
- Non-Alignment: Not joining military alliances of either superpower during the Cold War, while retaining freedom to make independent choices.
- NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, 1949 – US-led Western military alliance.
- Warsaw Pact: 1955 – USSR-led military alliance in Eastern Europe.
- Suez Crisis (1956): Britain, France, and Israel attacked Egypt after it nationalised the Suez Canal; India opposed the attack.
- Hungary Crisis (1956): Soviet Union crushed a popular uprising in Hungary; India avoided direct condemnation.
- Apartheid: System of racial segregation in South Africa (official until 1994).
3. Peace and conflict with China
Early Friendly Relations
- After the Chinese Revolution (1949), India was among the first countries to recognise Communist China.
- Nehru supported China’s emergence from western domination and helped its international acceptance.
- Leaders like Sardar Patel were cautious about possible future aggression, but Nehru felt such a threat was “exceedingly unlikely.”
- For long, India relied on paramilitary forces (not the army) to guard the Chinese border.
- Panchsheel Agreement (1954)
- Signed by Nehru and Zhou Enlai (29 April 1954).
- Known as Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence: mutual respect, non-aggression, non-interference, equality, peaceful coexistence.
- Symbolised strong friendship — leaders visited each other’s countries and were warmly welcomed.
Chinese Invasion, 1962
Tibet Issue
- China annexed Tibet in 1950, removing the buffer between India and China.
- India did not initially oppose but grew uneasy over suppression of Tibetan culture.
- Dalai Lama fled Tibet and was given asylum in India (1959).
- China accused India of allowing anti-China activities from its soil.
Border Dispute
- China rejected colonial-era boundaries, calling them illegitimate.
- Claimed two areas:
- Aksai Chin (Ladakh region, J&K).
- Arunachal Pradesh (then NEFA).
- By 1957–59, China occupied Aksai Chin and built a strategic road.
- Border skirmishes occurred, but talks failed to resolve the issue.
The 1962 War
- While world attention was on the Cuban Missile Crisis, China launched a massive invasion in October 1962.
- Western Front (Ladakh): Indian forces resisted Chinese advance.
- Eastern Front (Arunachal Pradesh): China advanced deep, close to Assam plains.
- After two waves of attacks, China declared a unilateral ceasefire and withdrew.
Consequences of the War
- India suffered national humiliation, and Nehru was criticised for misjudging China’s intentions and lack of preparedness.
- Defence Minister V.K. Krishna Menon resigned; senior army officers removed.
- India sought US and UK military help; USSR stayed neutral.
Political impact:
- No-confidence motion against Nehru debated in Lok Sabha.
- Congress lost by-elections.
- Opposition strengthened.
Split in Communist Party of India (1964):
- Pro-USSR faction stayed as CPI.
- Pro-China faction formed CPI(M).
- Many CPI(M) leaders arrested as “pro-China.”
Impact on Northeast India
- War highlighted vulnerability of the region.
- Led to reorganisation for better integration:
- Nagaland granted statehood.
- Manipur and Tripura given elected assemblies (still Union Territories then).
Sino-Indian Relations since 1962
- Relations remained frozen for over a decade.
- 1976: Diplomatic ties fully restored.
- 1979: Atal Bihari Vajpayee (then External Affairs Minister) visited China.
- 1988 onwards: Rajiv Gandhi’s visit marked a thaw; since then focus on trade relations.
- Today, despite disputes, both countries maintain economic cooperation and dialogue.
Tibet
- Background
- Tibet has alternated between independence and Chinese control.
- 1950: China formally took over Tibet.
- Large sections of Tibetans opposed Chinese rule.
- India’s Position on Tibet
- Tried to persuade China to give Tibet independence/autonomy.
- 1954 Panchsheel Agreement indirectly recognised Tibet as part of China (via territorial integrity clause).
- In the 1950s–60s, parties like Socialists and Jana Sangh openly supported Tibetan independence.
- Dalai Lama’s visits (1956) warned Nehru about worsening situation.
- 1959 Tibetan uprising crushed by China; Dalai Lama fled and got asylum in India.
- This became a major irritant in Sino-Indian ties.
- Tibetan Refugees
- Over decades, thousands of Tibetans fled to India.
- Large settlements in Delhi, Himachal Pradesh (Dharamshala as main centre), and other regions.
- Dharamshala is now the headquarters of the Dalai Lama and Tibetan Government-in-Exile.
- China’s Stand
- Tibet declared an Autonomous Region of China.
- China encourages settlement of Han Chinese in Tibet.
- Tibetans allege:
- False autonomy.
- Suppression of religion, culture, and identity.
Also Know
- Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): Superpower confrontation between USA and USSR; world’s attention diverted as China attacked India.
- Panchsheel’s Five Principles: Respect sovereignty, non-aggression, non-interference, equality, peaceful coexistence.
- Dalai Lama: Spiritual leader of Tibet; fled to India in 1959, lives in Dharamshala.
- Northeast Reorganisation after 1962: Step to strengthen integration of border states.
4. Peace and Conflict with China
Early Friendly Relations
- After the Chinese Revolution (1949), India was among the first countries to recognise Communist China.
- Nehru supported China’s emergence from western domination and helped its international acceptance.
- Leaders like Sardar Patel were cautious about possible future aggression, but Nehru felt such a threat was “exceedingly unlikely.”
- For long, India relied on paramilitary forces (not the army) to guard the Chinese border.
Panchsheel Agreement (1954)
- Signed by Nehru and Zhou Enlai (29 April 1954).
- Known as Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence: mutual respect, non-aggression, non-interference, equality, peaceful coexistence.
- Symbolised strong friendship — leaders visited each other’s countries and were warmly welcomed.
1. Chinese Invasion, 1962
Tibet Issue
- China annexed Tibet in 1950, removing the buffer between India and China.
- India did not initially oppose but grew uneasy over suppression of Tibetan culture.
- Dalai Lama fled Tibet and was given asylum in India (1959).
- China accused India of allowing anti-China activities from its soil.
Border Dispute
- China rejected colonial-era boundaries, calling them illegitimate.
- Claimed two areas:
- Aksai Chin (Ladakh region, J&K).
- Arunachal Pradesh (then NEFA).
- By 1957–59, China occupied Aksai Chin and built a strategic road.
- Border skirmishes occurred, but talks failed to resolve the issue.
The 1962 War
- While world attention was on the Cuban Missile Crisis, China launched a massive invasion in October 1962.
- Western Front (Ladakh): Indian forces resisted Chinese advance.
- Eastern Front (Arunachal Pradesh): China advanced deep, close to Assam plains.
- After two waves of attacks, China declared a unilateral ceasefire and withdrew.
Consequences of the War
- India suffered national humiliation and Nehru was criticised for misjudging China’s intentions and lack of preparedness.
- Defence Minister V.K. Krishna Menon resigned; senior army officers removed.
- India sought US and UK military help; USSR stayed neutral.
- Political impact:
- No-confidence motion against Nehru debated in Lok Sabha.
- Congress lost by-elections.
- Opposition strengthened.
- Split in Communist Party of India (1964):
- Pro-USSR faction stayed as CPI.
- Pro-China faction formed CPI(M).
- Many CPI(M) leaders arrested as “pro-China.”
- Impact on Northeast India
- War highlighted vulnerability of the region.
- Led to reorganisation for better integration:
- Nagaland granted statehood.
- Manipur and Tripura given elected assemblies (still Union Territories then).
2. Sino-Indian Relations since 1962
- Relations remained frozen for over a decade.
- 1976: Diplomatic ties fully restored.
- 1979: Atal Bihari Vajpayee (then External Affairs Minister) visited China.
- 1988 onwards: Rajiv Gandhi’s visit marked a thaw; since then focus on trade relations.
- Today, despite disputes, both countries maintain economic cooperation and dialogue.
3. Tibet
Background
- Tibet has alternated between independence and Chinese control.
- 1950: China formally took over Tibet.
- Large sections of Tibetans opposed Chinese rule.
India’s Position
- In the 1950s–60s, parties like Socialists and Jana Sangh openly supported Tibetan independence.
- India Tried to persuade China to give Tibet independence/autonomy.
- 1954 Panchsheel Agreement indirectly recognised Tibet as part of China (via territorial integrity clause).
- Dalai Lama’s visits (1956) warned Nehru about worsening situation.
- 1959 Tibetan uprising crushed by China; Dalai Lama fled and got asylum in India.
- This became a major irritant in Sino-Indian ties.
Tibetan Refugees
- Over decades, thousands of Tibetans fled to India.
- Large settlements in Delhi, Himachal Pradesh (Dharamshala as main centre), and other regions.
- Dharamshala is now the headquarters of the Dalai Lama and Tibetan Government-in-Exile.
China’s Stand
- Tibet declared an Autonomous Region of China.
- China encourages settlement of Han Chinese in Tibet.
- Tibetans allege:
- False autonomy.
- Suppression of religion, culture, and identity.
Also Know
- Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): Superpower confrontation between USA and USSR; world’s attention diverted as China attacked India.
- Panchsheel’s Five Principles: Respect sovereignty, non-aggression, non-interference, equality, peaceful coexistence.
- Dalai Lama: Spiritual leader of Tibet; fled to India in 1959, lives in Dharamshala.
- Northeast Reorganisation after 1962: Step to strengthen integration of border states.
4. War and Peace with Pakistan
Proxy War, 1947
- Conflict with Pakistan began immediately after Partition (1947) over Jammu & Kashmir.
- Proxy war in 1947 between Indian & Pakistani armies → referred to the UN.
- Pakistan soon became an important factor in India’s relations with the US and later with China.
Cooperation Despite Conflict
- Both governments cooperated in restoring abducted women post-Partition.
- Indus Waters Treaty (1960): signed by Nehru & Ayub Khan with World Bank mediation → successfully resolved river water disputes (still functional despite conflicts).
The 1965 War
- April 1965: Pakistan launched attacks in Rann of Kutch (Gujarat).
- Aug–Sept 1965: Major offensive in Jammu & Kashmir (hoping for local support, but failed).
- India retaliated with counter-offensive in Punjab sector → reached close to Lahore.
- Hostilities ended with UN intervention.
- Tashkent Agreement (Jan 1966): signed by PM Lal Bahadur Shastri & Ayub Khan, brokered by USSR.
- Impact:
- India inflicted heavy military losses on Pakistan.
- War worsened India’s already fragile economic situation.
Bangladesh War, 1971
- 1970: Pakistan’s first general election led to split mandate:
- Awami League (Sheikh Mujib-ur Rahman) won in East Pakistan.
- Zulfikar Ali Bhutto’s Party dominated West Pakistan.
- East Pakistanis protested against being treated as second-class citizens.
- Pakistani rulers rejected:
- Election results.
- Awami League’s demand for federation.
Crisis
- Early 1971: Sheikh Mujib arrested, army repression began in East Pakistan.
- Armed struggle for Bangladesh’s liberation started.
- India’s role:
- Faced 80 lakh refugees from East Pakistan.
- Gave moral & material support to the liberation struggle.
- Pakistan accused India of conspiring to break it.
International Context
- Pakistan backed by US & China.
- July 1971: Henry Kissinger secretly visited China via Pakistan → beginning of US–China rapprochement.
- To counter this, India signed a 20-year Treaty of Peace & Friendship with USSR (Aug 1971) → ensured Soviet support in case of attack.
The War
- December 1971: Pakistan attacked Punjab & Rajasthan and moved in J&K.
- India retaliated with full-scale war on both Eastern & Western fronts.
- East Pakistan front:
- Indian army, aided by locals, made rapid progress.
- Within 10 days, Dhaka surrounded; 90,000 Pakistani troops surrendered.
- Result: Emergence of Bangladesh (free nation).
- India declared unilateral ceasefire.
Aftermath
- Shimla Agreement (3 July 1972): signed between Indira Gandhi & Zulfikar Ali Bhutto → restored peace.
- Victory created national jubilation:
- Showcased India’s military strength.
- Boosted Indira Gandhi’s popularity (already re-elected in 1971).
- Congress secured large majorities in subsequent state elections.
- Economic impact:
- Frequent wars diverted scarce resources to defence.
- Departments of Defence Production (1962) and Defence Supplies (1965) set up.
- Five-Year Plans disrupted:
- Third Plan (1961–66) affected.
- Three Annual Plans followed.
- Fourth Plan started only in 1969.
- Defence expenditure increased enormously.
Kargil Confrontation (1999)
- Early 1999: Several points on Indian side of LoC (Mashkoh, Dras, Kaksar, Batalik) occupied by infiltrators claiming to be Mujahideens.
- Evidence suggested involvement of Pakistan Army.
- India launched operations to regain positions → confrontation lasted May–July 1999.
- By 26 July, India recaptured most positions → conflict ended.
Significance
- World attention as both India & Pakistan had just gone nuclear (1998).
- Conflict limited to Kargil region.
- In Pakistan:
- Political controversy → alleged that PM Nawaz Sharif was kept in dark by Army Chief.
- Soon after, Army Chief Gen. Pervez Musharraf seized power in a coup.
Key Takeaways
- Indo-Pak relations marked by alternating cycles of war & peace.
- Despite Indus Waters Treaty success, major wars in 1965 & 1971 shaped relations.
- 1971 War decisive → led to creation of Bangladesh and huge boost for India’s global stature.
- Frequent wars diverted India’s resources to defence, slowing economic growth.
- Kargil conflict (1999) showed fragility of peace despite nuclear deterrence.
5. India’s Nuclear Policy
Background
- Nehru’s Vision – Believed in science & technology for modern India. Nuclear programme started in late 1940s under Homi J. Bhabha.
- Peaceful Purpose – Aim was to generate atomic energy for peaceful use. Nehru opposed nuclear weapons and appealed for global disarmament.
- Nehru was against nuclear weapons.
- He appealed to superpowers for comprehensive nuclear disarmament.
- But, instead of reducing, the nuclear arms race kept increasing.
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), 1968
- China tested nuclear weapons in October 1964.
- The five nuclear powers (US, USSR, UK, France, China – then Taiwan representing China in the UN) wanted to stop others from acquiring nuclear weapons.
- They introduced the NPT (1968) to limit spread of nuclear weapons.
- India’s stand:
- Rejected the NPT as discriminatory.
- Argued it legitimised monopoly of 5 nuclear powers.
- Refused to sign.
India’s First Nuclear Test and Domestic Situation
- India carried out its first nuclear explosion in May 1974.
- India conducted a nuclear test but termed it as a Peaceful Nuclear Explosion (PNE).
- Claimed commitment to using nuclear power only for peaceful purposes.
- Domestic Situation
- The nuclear test was conducted during a time of domestic difficulties.
- The Arab–Israel War of 1973 led to a worldwide oil shock because Arab nations sharply raised oil prices.
- This created economic turmoil in India, with problems like high inflation.
- At the same time, India faced political unrest, including agitations and a nationwide railway strike.
Political Consensus on National Interest
- Although Indian political parties had some differences on foreign relations, they generally agreed on key issues. These included
- national integration,
- protection of international boundaries, and
- safeguarding national interests.
- Between 1962 and 1971, India fought three wars, but foreign policy never became a major issue in party politics
India’s Nuclear Programme
- India’s position on international treaties:
- Opposed treaties like NPT (1968) and CTBT (Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, 1996).
- In 1995, India opposed the indefinite extension of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)
- Reason: These were unfair and selectively applied to non-nuclear states, while legitimising the monopoly of nuclear powers.
- Major nuclear tests:
- May 1998 (Pokhran-II): India conducted a series of nuclear tests → showed military capability.
- Pakistan also tested soon after → regional nuclear tension increased.
- International Reaction:
- International criticism.
- Sanctions imposed on both India and Pakistan.
- Later sanctions were removed.
- India’s Nuclear Doctrine (1999):
- India adopted a nuclear doctrine of Credible Minimum Nuclear Deterrence..
- No First Use (NFU): India will not use nuclear weapons first.
- Commitment to global, verifiable and non-discriminatory nuclear disarmament → aim of a nuclear weapons free world.
Shifting Alliances in World Politics
1977 – Janata Party government comes to power. It declares genuine non-alignment, correcting the earlier pro-Soviet tilt.
1977 onwards – Both Congress and non-Congress governments take steps to improve relations with China and to build closer ties with the US.
Post-1990 –
- Russia remains an important friend but loses global influence.
- India’s foreign policy shifts to a pro-US strategy.
- Focus of international politics shifts from military interests to economic interests, which also shapes India’s policy choices.
- Indo-Pak Relations:
- Kashmir remains the core dispute.
- Many peace efforts were made:
- cultural exchanges, movement of citizens, and economic cooperation
- Delhi–Lahore bus and Samjhauta Express train.
- However, setbacks occurred (e.g., Kargil War 1999).
- Despite tensions, efforts for durable peace continue
Also Know
- Pokhran-I (1974): First peaceful nuclear explosion.
- Pokhran-II (1998): Military-capable nuclear tests.
- Bus diplomacy: In 1999, Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee travelled to Lahore by bus to improve Indo-Pak ties.
- Kargil War (1999): Despite peace efforts, Pakistan’s intrusion in Kargil led to war, showing fragile trust.